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Students, pretending they are point charges, move around the room acting out various prompts from the instructor regarding charge densities, including linear \(\lambda\), surface \(\sigma\), and volume \(\rho\) charge densities, both uniform and non-uniform. The instructor demonstrates what it means to measure these quantities. In a remote setting, we have students manipulate 10 coins to model the prompts in this activity and we demonstrate the answers with coins under a doc cam.

Students, pretending they are point charges, move around the room so as to make an imaginary magnetic field meter register a constant magnetic field, introducing the concept of steady current. Students act out linear \(\vec{I}\), surface \(\vec{K}\), and volume \(\vec{J}\) current densities. The instructor demonstrates what it means to measure these quantities by counting how many students pass through a gate.

This short lecture precedes osharmonicproj.

Let's apply the relationship of heat, entropy, and temperature to a contemporary challenge!

We'd like to maximize the efficiency of any process that is based on heat flow as an input.

Energy flow diagram

The efficiency of the machine is \begin{align} \text{efficiency} &= \frac{W}{Q_{\text{in}}} \\ \textit{e.g.} &=\frac{500\text{ J}}{1000\text{ J}} = 50\% \end{align} For a car engine, \(T_H\approx 600\text{ K}\) and \(T_C\approx 300\text{ K}\).

Remember that \(\Delta S=\frac{Q}{T}\), and \(\Delta S_{\text{tot}} \ge 0\).

This activity follows Planck spectral distribution

Google “phet blackbody spectrum”' and open the simulation.

1. 1. At what wavelength is the peak in spectral intensity
      • \(\lambda_{\text{peak}}\) for a black rock on the Earth's surface,
      • \(\lambda_{\text{peak}}\) for the black walls of a pizza oven,
      • \(\lambda_{\text{peak}}\) for a light bulb,
      • \(\lambda_{\text{peak}}\) for the sun.
   2. Check that the peak wavelength decreases with temperature following a \(1/T\) relationship.
2. 1. Use the numerical integration feature (the checkbox labelled “intensity” near the upper-right corner of the graph) to find the total intensity, in units of \(\text{W/m}^2\), emitted by
      • a black rock on the Earth's surface,
      • the black walls of a pizza oven,
      • the surface of a tungsten light bulb filament,
      • the surface of the sun.
   2. Check that these intensities are proportional to \(T^4\). Note, the quick way to check involves ratios: Does \(\frac{I_1}{I_2} = \left(\frac{T_1}{T_2}\right)^4\)?
3. How cold should you make an object if you want zero thermal radiation emitted?
4. (Extra---if your group has time)
   1. For an incandescent light bulb with a filament surface area of \(A\), estimate how efficiently it converts electrical energy into visible photons. Hint: you will need to estimate the following ratio: \begin{align*} \frac{\text{Electromagnetic radiation in visible wavelengths}}{ \text{Total electromagnetic radiation} } = \frac{ A\int_{400\text{ nm}}^{700\text{ nm}} S_\lambda(\lambda, T)d\lambda }{ A\int_{0}^{\infty} S_\lambda(\lambda, T)d\lambda } \end{align*}
   2. Estimate the filament surface area \(A\) for a 60 W light bulb.

Students use a plastic surface representing the potential due to a charged sphere to explore the electrostatic potential, equipotential lines, and the relationship between potential and electric field.

Students work in small groups to use Coulomb's Law \[\vec{E}(\vec{r}) =\frac{1}{4\pi\epsilon_0}\int\frac{\rho(\vec{r}^{\,\prime})\left(\vec{r}-\vec{r}^{\,\prime}\right)}{\vert \vec{r}-\vec{r}^{\,\prime}\vert^3} \, d\tau^{\prime}\] to find an integral expression for the electric field, \(\vec{E}(\vec{r})\), everywhere in space, due to a ring of charge.

In an optional extension, students find a series expansion for \(\vec{E}(\vec{r})\) either on the axis or in the plane of the ring, for either small or large values of the relevant geometric variable. Add an extra half hour or more to the time estimate for the optional extension.

Students integrate numerically to find the electric field due to a cone of surface charge, and then visualize the result. This integral can be done in either spherical or cylindrical coordinates, giving students a chance to reason about which coordinate system would be more convenient.

• Students need to understand that the surface represents the electric potential in the center of a parallel plate capacitor. Try doing the activity Electric Potential of Two Charged Plates before this activity.
• Students should know that
  1. objects with like charge repel and opposite charge attract,
  2. object tend to move toward lower energy configurations
  3. The potential energy of a charged particle is related to its charge: \(U=qV\)
  4. The force on a charged particle is related to its charge: \(\vec{F}=q\vec{E}\)

Students examine a plastic "surface" graph of the electric potential due to two charged plates (near the center of the plates) and explore the properties of the electric potential.

Students write python programs to compute the potential due to a square of surface charge, and then to visualize the result. This activity can be used to introduce students to the process of integrating numerically.

• The superposition principle for the electrostatic potential;
• How to calculate the distance formula \(\frac{1}{|\vec{r} - \vec{r}'|}\) for a simple specific geometric situation;
• How to calculate the first few terms of a (binomial) power series expansion by factoring out the dimensionful quantity which is large;
• How the symmetries of a physical situation are reflected in the symmetries of the power series expansion.

• The superposition principle for the electrostatic potential;
• How to calculate the distance formula \(\frac{1}{|\vec{r} - \vec{r}'|}\) for a simple specific geometric situation;

Write the equation for the electrostatic potential due to a point charge.

Instructor's Guide

Prerequisite Knowledge

Students will usually have seen the electrostatic potential due to a point charge in their introductory course, but may have trouble recalling it.

Whole-Class Conversations

As students try to remember the formula, many will conflate potential, potential energy, force, and electric field. Their answers may have some aspects of each of these. We use this question to get the iconic equation into the students' working memory in preparation for subsequent activities. This question also be used to help student disambiguate these different physical quantities.

Correct answers you're likely to see

\[V=\frac{kq}{r}\]

\[V=\frac{1}{4\pi\epsilon_0}\frac{q}{r}\] You may want to discuss which constants to use in which contexts, e.g. \(k\) is short and easy to write, but may be conflated with other uses of \(k\) in a give problem whereas \(\frac{1}{4\pi\epsilon_0}\) assumes you are working in a particular system of units.

Incorrect answers you're likely to see

• Two charges instead of one \[\cancel{V=\frac{kq_{1}q_{2}}{r}}\]
• Distance squared in the denominator \[\cancel{V=\frac{kq}{r^2}}\]
• Vector values \[\cancel{V=\frac{kq\, \hat r}{r}}\]

Possible follow-up questions to help with the disambiguation:

• Relationship between potential and potential energy \(U = qV\)
• Which function is the derivative of the other: \(1/r\) or \(1/r^2\)?
• Which physical quantity (potential or electric field, potential energy or force) is the derivative of the other?
• What is the electrostatic potential conceptually?
• Which function falls off faster: \(1/r\) or \(1/r^2\)?
• What are the dimensions of potential? Units?
• Where is the zero of potential?

Wrap-up

• This could be a good time to refer to the (correct) expression for the potential as an iconic equation, which will need to be further interpreted (”unpacked”) in particular physical situations. This is where the course is going next.
• This SWBQ can also serve to help students learn about recall as a cognitive activity. While parts of the equations that students write may be incorrect, many other parts will be correct. Let the way in which you manage the class discussion model for the students how a professional goes about quickly disambiguating several different choices. And TELL the students that this is what you are doing. Deliberately invoke their metacognition.
• Many students may not know that the electrostatic potential that we are talking about in this activity is the same quantity as what a voltmeter reads, in principle, but not in practice. You may need to talk about how a voltmeter actually works, rather than idealizing it. It helps to have a voltmeter with leads as a prop. Students often want to know about the “ground” lead. We often tie a long string to it (to symbolize making a really long wire) and send the TA out of the room with the string, “headed off to infinity” while discussing the importance of setting the zero of potential. The extra minute or two of humerous byplay gives the importance of the zero of potential a chance to sink in.

We use this small whiteboard question as a transition between The Distance Formula (Star Trek) activity, where students are learning about how to describe (algebraically) the geometric distance between two points, and the Electrostatic Potential Due to a Pair of Charges (with Series) activity, where students are using these results and the superposition principle to find the electrostatic potential due to two point charges.

This activity is the initial activity in the sequence Visualizing Scalar Fields addressing the representations of scalar fields in the context of electrostatics.

Students work in small groups to use the superposition principle \[V(\vec{r}) =\frac{1}{4\pi\epsilon_0}\int\frac{\rho(\vec{r}^{\,\prime})}{\vert \vec{r}-\vec{r}^{\,\prime}\vert} \, d\tau^{\prime}\] to find an integral expression for the electrostatic potential, \(V(\vec{r})\), everywhere in space, due to a ring of charge.

In an optional extension, students find a series expansion for \(V(\vec{r})\) either on the axis or in the plane of the ring, for either small or large values of the relevant geometric variable. Add an extra half hour or more to the time estimate for the optional extension.

This is a great first programming activity.

Consider a system consisting of four point charges arranged on the corners of a square in 3D Cartesian space of coordinates \((x,y,z)\).

1. Write a python function that returns the potential at any point in space caused by four equal point charges forming a square. Make the sides of the square parallel to the \(x\) and \(y\) axes and on the \(z=0\) plane.

   To do this you will need the expression for a the potential due to a single point charge \(V= \frac{k_Cq}{r}\) where \(r\) is the distance from the point charge. You will also need to use the fact that the total potential is the sum of the potentials due to each individual point charge.

   It is important that we ask students first to create a function for the potential, and only then try to visualize the potential. This allows students to reason about the computation for a single point in space (defined in their choice of coordinate systems).

2. Once you have written the above function, use it to plot the electrostatic potential versus position along the three cartesian axes.

   Since the students have already written a function for their potential, they can create a plot by creating an array for \(x\) (or \(y\), or \(z\)), and then passing that array to their function, along with scalars for the other two coordinates. Many students will discover this simply by modifying an example script they find on the web, replacing \(\sin(x)\) or similar with their function. It is well worth showing this easier approach to students who attempt who attempt to write a loop in order to compute the potential at each point in space.

   We ask students to explicitly plot the potential along axes because students seldom spontaneously think to create a 1D plot such as this.

3. Label your axes.
4. Work out the first non-zero term in a power series approximation for the potential at large \(x\), small \(x\), etc. Plot these approximations along with your computed potential, and verify that they agree in the range that you expect. Useful 1\(^{st}\) order Taylor expansions are: \begin{eqnarray} \sqrt{1+\epsilon} &\sim& 1+\frac{\epsilon}{2} \\ \frac{1}{1+\epsilon} &=& 1-\epsilon \end{eqnarray} where \(\epsilon\) is a small quantity.

   This may need to be omitted on the first Tuesday of class, since students probably will not yet have seen power series approximations. It may work in this case to at least talk about what is expected at large distance, since "it looks like a point charge" is reasoning students do make.

   Students struggle with the \(x\) approximations (assuming the square is in the xy plane). Each pair will probably need to have a little lecture on grouping terms according to the power of \(x\), and keeping only those terms for which they have every instance.

Extra fun

Create one or more different visualizations of the electrostatic potential. For example a 2D representation in the \(z=0\) plane.

More extra fun

Create a plot of the potential along a straight line that is not one of the axes. Hint: start from a line on the \(z=0\) plane, then try a random straight line. You can use your browser for help.

Even more extra fun

Move the charges around (e.g., off the \(z=0\) plane) and see what happens to your graphs

Dipole fun

Repeat the above (especially the limiting cases!) for four point charges in which half are positive and half negative, with the positive charges neighbors.

Common visualizations for 2D slices of space include contour plots, color plots, and "3D plots". Another option (less easy) would be to visualize an equipotential surface in 3 dimensions. It is worth reminding students to consider other planes than those at \(x=0\), \(y=0\), and \(z=0\).

Quadrupole fun

Repeat the above (especially the limiting cases!) for four point charges in which half are positive and half negative, with the positive charges diagonal from one another. It will help in this case to place the charges on the axes (rotating the square by 45 degrees), since otherwise the potential on each axis will be zero.

Students solve numerically for the potential due to a spherical shell of charge. Although this potential is straightforward to compute using Gauss's Law, it serves as a nice example for numerically integrating in spherical coordinates because the correct answer is easy to recognize.

Students are prompted to consider the scalar superposition of the electric potential due to multiple point charges. First a single point charge is discussed, then four positive charges, then an electric quadrupole. Students draw the equipotential curves in the plane of the charges, while also considering the 3D nature of equipotentials.

Students work in small groups to use the Biot-Savart law \[\vec{B}(\vec{r}) =\frac{\mu_0}{4\pi}\int\frac{\vec{J}(\vec{r}^{\,\prime})\times \left(\vec{r}-\vec{r}^{\,\prime}\right)}{\vert \vec{r}-\vec{r}^{\,\prime}\vert^3} \, d\tau^{\prime}\] to find an integral expression for the magnetic field, \(\vec{B}(\vec{r})\), due to a spinning ring of charge.

In an optional extension, students find a series expansion for \(\vec{B}(\vec{r})\) either on the axis or in the plane of the ring, for either small or large values of the relevant geometric variable. Add an extra half hour or more to the time estimate for the optional extension.

Students consider the relation (1) between the angular momentum and magnetic moment for a current loop and (2) the force on a magnetic moment in an inhomogeneous magnetic field. Students make a (classical) prediction of the outcome of a Stern-Gerlach experiment.

• to perform a magnetic vector potential calculation using the superposition principle;
• to decide which form of the superposition principle to use, depending on the dimensions of the current density;
• how to find current from total charge \(Q\), period \(T\), and the geometry of the problem, radius \(R\);
• to write the distance formula \(\vec{r}-\vec{r'}\) in both the numerator and denominator of the superposition principle in an appropriate mix of cylindrical coordinates and rectangular basis vectors;

Student discuss how many paths can be found on a map of the vector fields \(\vec{F}\) for which the integral \(\int \vec{F}\cdot d\vec{r}\) is positive, negative, or zero. \(\vec{F}\) is conservative. They do a similar activity for the vector field \(\vec{G}\) which is not conservative.

Gauss's Law: \[ \oint \vec{E}\cdot \hat{n}\, dA = {1\over\epsilon_0}\, Q_{\hbox{enc}} \]

Ampère's Law:

\[ \oint \vec{B}\cdot d\vec{r} = \mu_0 \, I_{\hbox{enc}} \]

Potentials: \begin{eqnarray*} \vec{E}&=&-\vec{\nabla} V\\ \vec{B}&=&\vec{\nabla}\times\vec{A} \end{eqnarray*}

Maxwell's Equations: \begin{eqnarray*} \vec{\nabla}\cdot\vec{E} &=& \frac{\rho}{\epsilon_0}\\ \vec{\nabla}\cdot\vec{B} &=& 0\\ \vec{\nabla}\times\vec{E} &=& 0\\ \vec{\nabla}\times\vec{B} &=& {\mu_0}\, \vec{J} \end{eqnarray*}

Superposition Laws: \begin{eqnarray*} V(\vec{r}) &=& \frac{1}{4\pi\epsilon_0} \int{\rho(\vec{r}')\, d\tau'\over \vert \vec{r}-\vec{r}'\vert}\\ \vec{E}(\vec{r}) &=& \frac{1}{4\pi\epsilon_0} \int{\rho(\vec{r}')(\vec{r}-\vec{r}')\, d\tau'\over \vert \vec{r}-\vec{r}'\vert^3}\\ \vec{A}(\vec{r}) &=& \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \int{\vec{J}(\vec{r}')\, d\tau'\over \vert \vec{r}-\vec{r}'\vert}\\ \vec{B}(\vec{r}) &=& \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \int{\vec{J}(\vec{r}')\times (\vec{r}-\vec{r}')\, d\tau'\over \vert \vec{r}-\vec{r}'\vert^3}\\ V(B)-V(A)&=&-\int_A^B \vec{E}\cdot d\vec{r} \end{eqnarray*}

Position Vectors \begin{align*} \vec{r} &= x \hat{x} + y\hat{y} + z\hat{z}\\ &= s \hat{s} + z\hat{z}\\ &= r\hat{r} \end{align*}

The distance between two position vectors

1. In cylindrical coordinates: \[\left\vert\vec r -\vec r^{\prime}\right\vert =\sqrt{s^2+s^{\prime\, 2}-2s\, s^{\prime}\cos(\phi- \phi^{\prime}) +(z-z^{\prime})^2}\]
2. In spherical coordinates: \[\left\vert\vec r -\vec r^{\prime}\right\vert =\sqrt{r^2+r^{\prime\, 2}-2r\, r^{\prime}\left[ \sin\theta\sin\theta^{\prime}\cos(\phi-\phi^{\prime}) +\cos\theta\cos\theta^{\prime}\right]}\]

Derivatives in Rectangular Coordinates: \begin{eqnarray*} \vec{\nabla} f &=& \frac{\partial f}{\partial x}\,\hat{x} + \frac{\partial f}{\partial y}\,\hat{y} + \frac{\partial f}{\partial z}\,\hat{z} \\ \vec{\nabla}\cdot\vec{F} &=& \frac{\partial F_x}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial F_y}{\partial y} + \frac{\partial F_z}{\partial z} \\ \vec{\nabla}\times\vec{F} &=& \left(\frac{\partial F_z}{\partial y}-\frac{\partial F_y}{\partial z}\right)\hat{x} + \left(\frac{\partial F_x}{\partial z} -\frac{\partial F_z}{\partial x}\right)\hat{y} + \left(\frac{\partial F_y}{\partial x} -\frac{\partial F_x}{\partial y}\right)\hat{z} \end{eqnarray*}

Derivatives in Cylindrical Coordinates: \begin{eqnarray*} \vec{\nabla} f &=& \frac{\partial f}{\partial s}\,\hat{s} + \frac{1}{s}\frac{\partial f}{\partial \phi}\,\hat{\phi} + \frac{\partial f}{\partial z}\,\hat{z} \\ \vec{\nabla}\cdot\vec{F} &=& \frac{1}{s}\frac{\partial}{\partial s}\left({s}F_{s}\right) + \frac{1}{s}\frac{\partial F_\phi}{\partial \phi} + \frac{\partial F_z}{\partial z} \\ \vec{\nabla}\times\vec{F} &=& \left( \frac{1}{s}\frac{\partial F_z}{\partial \phi} - \frac{\partial F_\phi}{\partial z} \right) \hat{s} + \left(\frac{\partial F_s}{\partial z}-\frac{\partial F_z}{\partial s}\right) \hat{\phi} + \frac{1}{s} \left( \frac{\partial}{\partial s}\left({s}F_{\phi}\right) - \frac{\partial F_s}{\partial \phi} \right) \hat{z} \end{eqnarray*}

Derivatives in Spherical Coordinates: \begin{eqnarray*} \vec{\nabla} f &=& \frac{\partial f}{\partial r}\,\hat{r} + \frac{1}{r}\frac{\partial f}{\partial \theta}\,\hat{\theta} + \frac{1}{r\sin\theta}\frac{\partial f}{\partial \phi}\,\hat{\phi} \\ \vec{\nabla}\cdot\vec{F} &=& \frac{1}{r^2}\frac{\partial}{\partial r}\left({r^2}F_{r}\right) + \frac{1}{r\sin\theta}\frac{\partial}{\partial \theta}\left({\sin\theta}F_{\theta}\right) + \frac{1}{r\sin\theta}\frac{\partial F_\phi}{\partial \phi} \\ \vec{\nabla}\times\vec{F} &=& \frac{1}{r\sin\theta} \left( \frac{\partial}{\partial \theta} \left({\sin\theta}F_{\phi}\right) - \frac{\partial F_\theta}{\partial \phi} \right) \hat{r} + \frac{1}{r} \left( \frac{1}{\sin\theta} \frac{\partial F_r}{\partial \phi} - \frac{\partial}{\partial r}\left({r}F_{\phi}\right) \right) \hat{\theta} \\ && \quad + \frac{1}{r} \left( \frac{\partial}{\partial r}\left({r}F_{\theta}\right) - \frac{\partial F_r}{\partial \theta} \right) \hat{\phi} \end{eqnarray*}

Lorentz Force Law:

\[\vec{F}=q_{\hbox{test}}\left(\vec{E}+\vec{v}\times\vec{B}\right)\]

Step and Delta Functions: \begin{eqnarray*} \frac{d}{dx} \theta(x-a)&=&\delta(x-a)\\ \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(x)\delta(x-a)\, dx&=&f(a) \end{eqnarray*}

Vector Calculus Theorems: \begin{eqnarray*} \oint \vec{F} \cdot d\vec{A} &=& \int \vec{\nabla} \cdot \vec{F} d\tau\\ \oint \vec{F} \cdot d\vec{\ell} &=& \int (\vec{\nabla} \times \vec{F}) \cdot d\vec{A}\\ \end{eqnarray*}

Total Charge and Current: \begin{eqnarray*} Q &=& \int \rho (\vec{r}') d\tau'\\ I &=& \int \vec{J} (\vec{r}') \cdot d\vec{A'}\\ \end{eqnarray*}

This small group activity is designed to provide practice with the multivariable chain rule. Students determine a particular rate of change using given information involving other rates of change. The discussion emphasizes the equivalence of a variety of approaches, including the use of differentials. Good “review” problem; can also be used as a homework problem.

• Practice evaluating line integrals;
• Practice choosing appropriate coordinates and basis vectors;
• Introduction to the geometry behind conservative vector fields.